Bleaching in dentistry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bleaching in dentistry - Essay Example One may either opt for a treatment at the dentist’s office or use an OTC treatment tray in-house. Research studies have shown the there is not much difference between the two. Ghalili et al (2014) conducted a study to see the efficacy of novel in-house bleaching procedure using OTC bleaching tray system. They aimed to study the change in color, gingival irritation and tooth sensitivity in patients who opt for undergoing in-house bleaching process. For the study 43 participants within the age group of 18 -65 years and without teeth restorations were selected. Post exclusion, color shade, sensitivity and gingival measurement were done. The participants were given at-home bleaching systems containing 9% HP and treatment was done for 5 days. Assessment was done after treatment on day and day 5. It was seen that after day 1 of treatment significant color change was seen in all but only7 participants complained of discomfort while 2 suffered from buccal mucosal blanching. After Day 5, radical change in color was seen and 82% did not report any pain or discomfort at all. The study thereby concluded that home systems were effective on all in terms of restoring teeth whiteness however people should consult a dentist prior using such systems because some may suffer from discomfort or pain. Some studies have tried to understand if the bleaching mechanism of these agents could be enhanced with the help of energy supplied through heat or radiation. Cardoso et al (2012) conducted an experiment to measure the efficacy of bleaching agents activated by ultrasonic waves. Bleaching agents such as hydrogen peroxide are extremely efficient in producing free radicals which degrade the long chains pigments that make the tooth appear darker. Research showed that if these agents could be supplied with heat energy they would become much more efficient in breaking down teeth pigmentation to make the teeth appear lighter in color. In

OHMs prac report Essay Example for Free

OHMs prac report Essay Introduction: OHMS Law states that the current passing through a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential difference (i. e. voltage drop or voltage) across the two points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between them. The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is: Independent Variable: changing the resistance (OHMS) Dependant Variable: The current (A) is decreased because of the increasing resistors. Constant: The voltage is kept constant but is changed at the end of each test to make the investigation more accurate. Materials: Method: 1. Collect materials listed in above diagram 2. Set up apparatus shown above 3. Set the voltmeter to 1 volts and place the lead in the 5 OHMs resistor 4. Turn to the Power Pack and record the reading on the ammeter 5. Repeat step 3 and 4 2 more times. 6. Change the volts to 3,5,7,9,11,13 and 15, remembering to only record with the 5 OHMs resistor. 7. Record the results using the 5 OHM resistor 8. Repeat steps 4 7 but instead of using the 5 OHMs resistor, use 10 OHMs, 18 OHMs and 56OHMs resistors 9. Clean up all equipment and analyze the results Results: Current (A) Volts 5 OHMs 10 OHMs 18 OHMs 56 OHMs 1It can be seen from the Graph that as the volts increased and so did the resistors, the current was recorded lower that the previous. The highest current recorded was, 2. 557amps with a resistance of 5 OHMs and a voltage of 15 volts. The lowest current recorded was, 0. 017amps with a resistance of 56 OHMs and a voltage of 1. This shows that as the resistors increased the current was weaker, than of a low resistor at the same voltage. Using the Formula and rearranging the equation so R is the average value for the Resistor can be found. The Formula now would be . The Average resistor value for: The 5 OHMs resistor = 5. 857, The 10 OHMs resistor = 10. 340, the 18 OHMs Resistor = 18. 038 and the 56 OHMs resistor = 56. 238. Discussion: Systematic errors: The resistor not calibrated to the exact value displayed Ammeter not calibrated properly Voltage on battery pack not correctly calibrated properly Random errors: Leaving the resistors on to long causing the resistors to over heat and decrease the resistance. Loss of resistance to the resistors due to ware and tare on the resistors over a long period of time. Damaged equipment. Humidity and room temperature Improvements: There are some possible improvements that could be made to improve the results and practical experiment. The Equipment should be checked prior to the practical to reduce errors during the experiment. Also introducing more accurate results by recording the results ten times, instead of five, and work out the average. Use digital ammeters to measure the current. Compare the results to other practicals that were conducted and compare views and data. The Results: It can be seen from the Graph that as the volts increased and so did the resistors, the current was recorded lower that the previous. The highest current recorded was, 2. 557amps with a resistance of 5 OHMs and a voltage of 15 volts. The lowest current recorded was, 0. 017amps with a resistance of 56 OHMs and a voltage of 1. This shows that as the resistors increased the current was weaker, than of a low resistor at the same voltage. Conclusion: The Hypothesis is correct, as the volts and the resistance was increased, the current decreased. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Electricity and Magnetism section.

Application Of Islamic Microfinance In Poverty Alleviation Economics Essay

Application Of Islamic Microfinance In Poverty Alleviation Economics Essay Poverty is one of the fundamental problems in developing countries. It is estimated that around 80 percent of the worlds population is living in countries where income distribution gap is widening. Poverty rate is quite high in all Muslim countries except a few countries in Southeast Asia and the Middle East. Poverty levels have also been associated with high inequality alongside low productivity. Half of the Indonesia population (about 129 million) is living below the poverty line of $2 a day. While in South Asia two largest Muslim states Bangladesh and Pakistan alone account for 122 million each living below the poverty line where as 100 million Muslims of India is also living below the poverty line. (Source: Islamic Microfinance Development: Challenges and Initiatives, IRTI website, 2007) Microfinance is a part of financial services which includes not only credit facility but also savings, insurance, and fund transfers to facilitate low-income people. The World Bank estimates that there are over 7,000 microfinance institutions; serving some 16 million poor people in developing countries. The total cash turnover of MFIs world-wide is estimated at $2.5 billion and the potential for new growth is outstanding. (Source: Micro facts: Data Snapshots of Microcredit, Global Development Research Centre website, 2008-2009) The Microcredit Summit estimates that $21.6 billion is needed to provide microfinance to 100 million of the worlds poorest families. The Summit planners said it should be possible to raise US$2 billion from borrowers savings alone and the final figure may be even higher. (Source: Micro facts: Data Snapshots of Microcredit, Global Development Research Centre website, 2008-2009) Fewer than 10 million out of the 500 million people who run micro and small enterprises have access to financial support for their business and fewer than 2% of the poor people have access to financial services (credit and savings) from sources other than lenders. (Source: MICROFACTS: Data Snapshots of Microcredit, Global Development Research Centre website, 2008-2009) The supporters of microfinance believed that it will help in reducing poverty and the concept became more popular in 1974 when famine struck Bangladesh. At the time, Dr. Muhammad Yunus was a professor of economics at the University of Chittagong. He subsequently started Grameen Bank which has been a wonderful success with more than 90 percent recovery rate. (Source: Short history of Grameen Bank, Grameen Bank website, 2010) Studies have also shown that during an eight year period, among the poorest Bangladesh with no credit service of any type, only 4 % pulled themselves above. But with only individuals and families with credit from Grameen Bank, more than 48% rose above the poverty line. (Source: MICROFACTS: Data Snapshots of Microcredit, Global Development Research Centre website, 2008-2009) In Pakistan there are 25 Microfinance institutions with the total deposit of $52.3 million which covers 1.83 million of population out of total population of 174 million (Fehmeen, 2010). Pakistan is ranked 6th in terms of population with the labor force of 53.78 million as estimated for 2009. (Source: CIA world Fact book, Central Intelligence Agency website, no date) Figure 1: Unmet Demand for Microfinance in Pakistan from 2008-2009 Source: Microfinance Hub Website From the statistical figures of 2008-2009; it can be said that the population below the poverty line is 29,928,000 million which represents 17.2 % of the total population and the unemployed population is 26,448,000 which means 15.2% of the total population; that sums up to 32.4% out of the total population of Pakistan. These people need microfinance support to improve their living standard because the people living below the poverty line are not even able to get basic necessities of life (Fehmeen, 2010). In this regard, the Financial Inclusion Program (FIP) has been implemented by SBP with support of the UK Department for International Development (DFID), which aims to transform the financial market with a clear objective to provide equitable and efficient market-based financial services to the otherwise excluded poor and marginalized population including women and young people. FIP has developed an evidence based policy and a realistic target of reaching out to three million microfinance users by the end of 2010. (Source: Financial Inclusion Program, SBP, no date) Some facts about the outreach of Islamic Microfinance in different countries are mentioned in the Table 1. Region No. of Included Institutions % of Female clients (Avg.) Total no. of Clients Total Outstanding Loan Portfolio (US$) Avg. Loan Balance (US$) Afghanistan 4 22 53,011 10,347,029 162 Bahrain 1 N/A 323 96,565 299 Bangladesh 2 90 111,837 34,490,490 280 Indonesia 105 60 74,698 122,480,000 1,640 Jordon 1 80 1,481 1,619,909 1,094 Lebanon 1 50 26,000 22,500,000 865 Pakistan 1 40 6,069 746,904 123 West Bank and Gaza 1 100 132 145,485 1102 Saudi Arabia 1 86 7,000 586,667 84 Sudan 3 65 9,561 1,891,819 171 Syria 1 45 2,298 1,838,047 800 Yemen 3 58 7,031 840,240 146 Total 63 299,441 197,583,155 564Table 1: Outreach of Islamic Micro Finance by Country Source: CGAP Survey, 2007 Islamic finance is still in its introductory phase, but it has achieved double digit growth both in Pakistan and around the world. Some of the well known Islamic finance instruments are Murabaha (Sale Contract), Musharakah (Equity Participation), Mudarabah (Partnership), Ijarah (Lease Financing), Bay Muajjal (sale on Credit or deferred payment sale), Bay Salam (Deferred Delivery Sale) etc. 1.2 Problem Statement Interest based micro lending carries high interest rates and is impermissible in Islam; hence, this study strives to analyze how the mix of debt and equity based Islamic finance contracts be used in providing Islamic micro financial services in Pakistan which has more than one quarter people living below the poverty line and huge rural population. 1.3 Objectives of the study It will identify and analyze various instruments of Islamic microfinance that can eliminate poverty effectively than conventional micro financing. It will recognize and analyze the mix of debt and equity based Islamic finance contract; used in providing Islamic micro financial services in Pakistan. It will explore the scope of opportunities for Islamic microfinance in Pakistan. It will discover the challenges that Islamic microfinance could face in Pakistan. 1.4 Importance of the study This  study  highlights the importance of Islamic microfinance to help reduce poverty in Pakistan. As the poor are becoming poorer in Pakistan due to rising inflation and very limited sources of employment, this research will discuss how the Islamic microfinance could help in poverty alleviation, equitable redistribution and employment creation. 1.5 Research Methodology This research study will inquire that how far Islamic microfinance would be helpful in reducing poverty in Pakistan. To substantiate the case for microfinance; the study will analyze five major countries where microfinance is prevalent. Panel data on four variables which include per capita income, education which will be measured through literacy rate, poverty measured through percentage of population living below the poverty line and inequality measured through gini co-efficient will be taken from the selected five countries. The period of study will be different for each country starting from when microfinance started in particular countries to the current period. Secondly, the research will identify and analyze the mix of debt and equity based Islamic finance contract which could be used in providing Islamic micro financial services in Pakistan. For this purpose, specific entrepreneurial activities with investment requirements will be identified and then the ideal Islamic mode to be used in specific entrepreneurial activities with particular investment would be recommended. 1.6 Plan of the study This study consists of five phases. Work in each phase would be reported as a separate chapter. The first chapter of study will cover the introduction which includes the background of the study, Problem statement, Objectives of the study, importance of the study and scope of research. The second chapter will cover the literature review of will the academic and practical progress in Microfinance. The third chapter will discuss the research methodology i.e. the various tools and techniques that will be used to conduct research. The fourth chapter will include the data collection and findings obtained from the analysis of the data collected. The fifth chapter will comprise the research conclusion based on the findings. 1.7 Limits of the study This study on application of Islamic microfinance in poverty alleviation would be useful and provide experiential support to future studies on Islamic microfinance in Pakistan. There exist no full fledge Islamic microfinance bank in Pakistan. Hence, the models and instruments discussed have not been put into practice and empirical analysis of performance will be hard to make. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 What is Microfinance? According to Abedelhamid 1991 (p. 57-64). Microfinance is a set of financial services which provides loans to clients who are excluded from the traditional financial system on account of no or little collateral. In the third world countries, microfinance has become very popular because inflation tends to be high and volatile; government is often incompetent; and the necessary legal framework for financial services is often missing Microfinance is the provision of a broad range of financial services such as deposits, loans, payment services, money transfers, and insurance to poor and low-income households and, their microenterprises. Microfinance services are provided by three types of sources: Formal institutions, such as rural banks and cooperatives; Semiformal institutions, such as nongovernment organizations; and Informal sources such as money lenders and shopkeepers. Institutional microfinance is defined to include microfinance services provided by both formal and semiformal institutions. Microfinance institutions are defined as institutions whose major business is the provision of microfinance services. (Source: Finance for Poor: Microfinance development Strategy, ADB website, 2000) 2.2 History of Microfinance Microfinance history dates back to the mid of the 18th century when the philosopher Lysander Spooner was doing research on the advantages from small loans to entrepreneurs and farmers as a way to get people out of poverty. The economist Timothy Guinnane at Yale had been doing some research on Friedrich Wilhelm Raiffeisen ´s village bank movement which started in 1864 in Germany and by the start of the year 1901 the bank reached 2 million rural farmers. As per Timothy Guinnane explanation it was proved that microcredit could pass the two tests concerning peoples payback moral and the possibility to provide the financial service to poor people. Today, the expression Microfinance has its roots in the 1970s when the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh was established. At that time a new span of microfinance initiatives introduced many new procedures into the sector. Pioneering enterprises started doing experiments with providing credits to the poor people. Increasingly, it was thought that people could be relied on for repayment of their borrowings and it is feasible to provide financial services to underserved people through market based enterprises without subsidy. In 1974, Shore bank was the first microfinance and community development bank founded in Chicago for the first time in USA. (Source: History of micro finance, Global envision website, 2006) Today the World Bank estimates that more than 16 million people are served by some 7000 microfinance institutions all over the world. CGAP experts suggested that about 500 million families benefits from these small loans making new business possible. (Source: Micro facts: Data Snapshots of Microcredit, Global Development Research Centre website, 2008-2009) 2.3 Present Situation and Growth of Microfinance The year 2008 is considered as the beginning of a challenging period for microfinance in a number of countries. The economic and financial crises that reached MFIs and their clients turned calm waters into rough shores for many institutions in the industry. The year 2009 MIX Global 100 Composite Ranking captures the effects of this changing environment, where global growth rates slowed for the first time in years, and many MFIs faced stagnant or rising costs, and in some in ­stances a slow rise in credit risk. Figure: 3 Growth Pattern of Microfinance in all continents Source: MIX Global website, 2009 The 2009 edition of the MIX Global 100, surveyed 955 institutions from nearly 100 countries as illustrated in Table 2. As a group, surveyed institutions represented nearly 85 percent of the known pool of microfinance borrow ­ers, serving 72 million borrowers with 37 billion USD in loans and holding 22 billion USD in deposits from 67 million microfinance clients (Source: MIX Global website, 2009). Table 2:2009 MIX Global 100 Composite Ranking Countries with Most MFIs in Top 100 Country MFIs in Top 100 All Ranked MFIs India 20 51 Ecuador 9 44 Egypt 6 12 Philippines 6 34 Bangladesh 5 9 Cambodia 5 13 Bolivia 4 22 Bosnia and Herzegovina 4 13 Armenia 3 7 Mexico 3 27 Morocco 3 5 Dominican Republic 2 2 Jordan 2 6 Mongolia 2 4 Nepal 2 16 Peru 2 54 Serbia 2 4 Vietnam 2 5 Source: MIX Global website, 2009 Microfinance is assured as one of the tools that can decrease as well as eradicate poverty. According to Saefullah (2010) numbers of research have been conducted in order to measure the success of microfinance. The stories of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, Bank Rakyat Indonesia (Indonesian People Bank) in Indonesia, Self-Help Group in India show the extent to which microfinance can eliminate poverty. Obaidullah (2008) has also done research that attempts to identify the glory of microfinance. Table: 3 Poverty Level and Financial Access in Bangladesh, Indonesia and Turkey Source: Islamic Microfinance Development: Challenges and Initiatives, 2008, IRTI, IDB Name of Member Counrty Human Poverty index Rank Income poverty Index Population Below Population in millions No. of poor in millions Financial access percentage (2007) $ 1 a day (%) $ 2 a day (%) Poverty Line Peoples republic of Bangladesh 85 36 82.8 45 147.37 122 32 Republic of Indonesia 41 7.5 52.4 17.8 245.45 128.6 40 Republic of Turkey 21 3.4 18.7 20 70.41 13.2 49 Impact of microfinance in household and community level components According to study of Chowdhury Bhuiya (2004) the wider impacts of BRAC (Bangladesh Rural and Advancement Committee) poverty alleviation program found that there was a positive impact on living standard as the survival rate and schooling of children improved. The Impact of microcredit on borrowers of Grameen Bank by Khandker (2003) illustrate that there was a positive impact on the households poverty reduction that availed the microfinance facility. Latif (2001) in his study on the effects of microcredit on the household saving of Bangladeshi borrowers concluded that saving-income ratio was significantly higher for the customers of microfinance as compared to poor who were not participants of microfinance institutes. Another research conducted by Zaman (2001) on the Impact of microcredit on poverty and vulnerability found that there is positive impact on income and decision making capability of poor using microfinance. Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (2001) researched on the Impact of microcredit on savings and informal borrowings discussed that microcredit increased savings and this was more prominent in women than men. Hakim (2000) in the study Impact of microfinance program highlighted the higher social relations and mobility among women clients and the positive impact of microfinance on asset-ownership. Mosley and Hulme (1998) studied the possible conflict between growth and poverty alleviation. Their main finding is that the income and assets of the borrowers had increased due microcredit. Halder (1998) in the research identification of the poorest and the impact of credit on them asserted that the members of BRAC (Bangladesh Rural and Advancement Committee) consumed high calories as compared to non-members. Pitt and Khandaker (1996) explained in their study the Impact of microcredit on borrowers of BRAC, BRDB (Bangladesh Rural Development Board) and Grameen Bank that there was positive impact in women employment, total per capita weekly expenditure and womens non-land assets. Villagers attitude and other behaviors can be changed through credit programs. (The Challenge of Poverty and Mapping out Solutions: Requisite Paradigm Shift from a Problem-Solving and Islamic Perspective Dr. Mohammad Omar Farooq) M.A.Hamid (no date) found in his research that from 200 customers of Grameen Bank 46 were willing to join the Islamic bank of Bangladesh limited and one of the three main reasons was that this Islamic bank will provide services of microfinance within the limits of Islamic Shariah and Grameen Bank will not. Microfinance has a very essential role to play in development according to proponents of microfinance. As per UNCDF (2004) studies microfinance plays three vital roles in improvement. First of all it helps needy people to fulfill their basic needs and protect against hazards and is also related with up gradation of household economic welfare and lastly it motivates women by their participation in economy and also encourage equality. Results of a research on monitoring and evaluation of PKSF (Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation) (2005) sponsored microfinance programs shows that absolute poverty decreased by 9% and moderate poverty reduced by 5% through 1997 to 2000. Amin et al. (2003) in his study the Impact of microcredit on clients of Grameen Bank, BRAC and ASA concluded that Microcredit program was successful in reaching poor Objective of microfinance according to Otero (1999) is not just about providing capital to the poor or fight against poverty on an individual level but it also has a responsibility on an institutional level. It seeks to create organizations that can provide their financial services to the poor, who are continuously ignored by the formal sector. According to Littlefield and Rosenberg (2004) study people that are below poverty line are not part of financial services sector of the economy so thats why microfinance institutions have established to provide solution to these issues. MFIs become a major part of financial sector of country by providing these services to poor people and hence it can also access capital markets for the funding of their lending portfolios. (Otero, 1999) The overall collision of microfinance can be analyzed on three things including level, type and its variable. Level defines its depth that on which level it has affected the target market whereas type of impact examines how it has benefited the people along with the impact variables as mentioned in fig. 2. Impact of microfinance on household can be accessed on two levels household and community through its types by considering its different variables. It can be scrutinize through income, education, empowerment and other social things as well. Level s of Impact Types of Impact Impact Variable Economic Variables: Income Household Assets Housing Access to food Human Capital: Education Health Confidence Skills Empowerment Social Capital: Social Networks Social Mobility Household Community Social Economic Figure: 2 Impact of Microfinance in House hold and community level Source: Eoin Wrenn, 2005 2.4 Challenges for Microfinance The achievement in microfinance in the world has been impressive relative to the status in the 1970s. However, a number of major problems remain. 2.4.1Policy development environment for financial sectors programs The policy environment for microfinance in many countries still remains unfavorable for sustainable growth in microfinance operations. For example, in countries such as Peoples Republic of China, Thailand, and Viet Nam, the ceilings on interest rates limit the ability of MFIs to provide increased and continuing access to an increasing segment of the excluded households. 2.4.2Inadequate financial infrastructure It is another major problem in the world. Financial infrastructure includes legal, information, and regulatory and supervisory systems for financial institutions and markets. Most governments have not focused to build financial infrastructure that supports, strengthens, and ensures the sustainability of such institutions or programs and promotes participation of private sector institutions in microfinance. The other major financial infrastructure-related problems include lack of: A legal framework conducive for emergence and sustainable growth of small-scale financial institutions, Regulatory and supervisory systems for microfinance in countries where the microfinance subsector is approaching a level of maturity, and Emphasis on development of accounting and auditing practices and professions 2.4.3Limitation of retail level institutional capacity Most retail level institutions do not have adequate capacity to expand the scope and outreach of services on a sustainable basis to most of the potential clients. Lack capacity to leverage funds, Are unable to provide a range of products and services compatible with the potential clients characteristics. Do not have an adequate network. (Source: Finance for Poor: Microfinance development Strategy, ADB website, 2000) 2.5 Islamic Microfinance According to Mufti Muhammad Taqi Usmani( no date) , from years Muslims are trying to frame their style of living according to Islam thats why they restrict themselves within the limits of Shariah which on the basis of Islam prohibits the practice of Riba or interest in any of the financial or trade activities. According to Dr. Abbas Mirakhor, Executive Director of the IMF as referred by Chaudhri (2006) An important function of Islamic finance that is seldom noted à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ is the ability of Islamic finance to provide the vehicle for financial and economic empowerment à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to convert dead capital into income generating assets to financially and economically empower the poor Islamic Microfinance is the way of financing to the underserved population without using the concept of interest. Microfinance is already more structurally aligned to applying Islamic equity financing structures. As microfinance programs are based on group sharing of risk and personal guarantee while maintenance of trust and honesty is tied to the availability of future funds. 2.5.1 Importance of Islamic Microfinance In his famous book Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued that participation in religious sects could potentially convey two economic advantages to adherents. The first could be seen as a reputational signal while the poor might look alike to potential employers, lenders, and customers, membership in a specific group could convey a reduction in risk associated with the particular individual and ultimately improve the efficient allocation of resources. Second, religious groups could also provide for extra-legal means of establishing trust and sanctioning miscreants in intra group transactions, again reducing uncertainty and improving efficiency, especially where civil remedies for failure to uphold contracts were weak. (Case study: Islamic microfinance and socially responsible investment Anderson and Noland, 1988). Islamic finance techniques could give thousands of entrepreneurial poor the access to microfinance an option they might not consider if traditional, interest-based commercial loans were offered. More experimentation and practice in the field should contribute to more knowledge and a better understanding of effective loan delivery mechanisms using Islamic banking principles (Muhammad Ramzan, 1996). 2.5.2 Islamic approach to poverty alleviation All principles or laws in Islam owe their origin to its holy book the Quran and the sayings and deeds of its Prophet (peace be upon him) encapsulated in books of Hadith. A saying of the Prophet (peace be upon him) forcefully drives home the central message of Islam regarding poverty: Poverty is almost like disbelief in God.. On another occasion, the Prophet (peace be upon him) is reported to have said Allah! I seek refuge with you from the affliction of poverty (Soruce: Sahih Bukhari: read, study, search online Volume 8, Book 75, Number 379). Islam views poverty to be a curse to be eradicated through productive efforts. Poverty is in conflict with enrichment of self (nafs), which is one of the primary objectives (maqasid) of Shariah. Islamic jurists have unanimously held the view that it is the collective obligation (fardkifayah) of a Muslim society to take care of the basic needs of the poor. (Obaidullah, Muhammed (2008) 2.5.2.1Charity Charity occupies a central position in the Islamic scheme of poverty alleviation. The broad term for charity in Islam is Sadaqa. When compulsorily mandated on an eligible Muslim, Sadaqa is called Zakah. When Sadaqa results in flow of benefits that are expected to be stable and permanent (such as, through endowment of a physical property), it is called Sadaq-e-jariya or Waqf. Establish Prayer and dispense the Purifying Alms (Zakat) and bow in worship with those who bow (Al-Quran, (2:43)) The research paper by Professor Habib Ahmed (no date) asserts that Zakah play an important role in eliminating poverty and a significant impact of Zakah can be seen if the macroeconomic policies are in the alignment with poverty reduction objective. Zakah is the third among five pillars of Islam and payment of zakah is an obligation on the wealth and production of every Muslim. The primary issue with a zakah or sadaqa-based solution to the challenge of poverty is the issue of sustainability. Funds mobilized through these tools tend to fluctuate from time to time and may not lend themselves to careful planning and implementation. Further, these funds are meant mostly for the extremely poor and function as a safety net for meeting their immediate and basic needs. Benefits from waqf, assets are of course, meant to flow to the community at large and also on a sustainable basis (M U Chapra, 2008).It has been In FY 2009, approximately Rupees 150 billion were paid by people in Pakistan in charity, of which 90 percent was for the purpose of paying Zakat. (Dawn, September, 7, 2009) According to Dr Mohammad Omar Farooq people when pay Zakah should be concerned with its impact on the society in the long or short term to get the solutions for poverty alleviation. In another research conducted by Nafis Alam (no date) states in his study Islamic venture philanthropy: a tool for community development that Islamic charities are significant influential tool for sustainable community development. 2.5.3 Islamic Microfinance Products Islamic approach to poverty alleviation is a composite of a mission based and market-based interventions. Islamic Microfinance need not be restricted to not-for-profit modes alone. Islam permits for-profit trade and creation of wealth. It depends on the customer that what he/she wants to do with the money either needs just security of the money against which he/she may not claim the profit or wants to invest the money and share both profit and loss. The poor need a range of microfinance services, such as, micro-savings, micro-credit, micro-equity, micro-Takaful and micro-remittance. In the context of mainstream Islamic finance, people come across a host of for-profit modes through which such services may be provided to the poor. These could be used for microfinance with minor modifications wherever needed (Obaidullah, 2008). Micro-Savings Micro-savings is a critical financial service for poor and excluded households. Poor people want secure, convenient deposit services that allow for small balances and transactions and offer easy access to their funds. However, microfinance institutions across the globe tend to neglect this product while giving undue importance to micro-credit. The contract underlying a savings product must be free from elements of Riba and Gharar. This constitutes one of the most well known Islamic products, consisting in a cost-plus profit financing transaction in which a tangible asset is purchased by an Islamic institution at the request of its customer from a supplier. The Islamic institution then sells the asset to its customer on a deferred sale basis with a markup reflecting the institutions profit Various contractual options for designing savings products are: wadia, qard hasan and Mudarabah (Obaidullah, 2008). Micro-Credit The Islamic alternative to interest-based conventional loan is trade based or lease-based credit that permits the ownership and/or use of commodities or physical assets needed for productive ente

Stalins Reform Of Russia :: essays research papers

Every Day Stalinism, by Sheila Fitzpatrick gives the real accounts of life under the control of Joseph Stalin. Fitzpatrick states her claim as to how Stalin remained in power for over twenty-five years by using methods of oppression and by implementing modernity. One of the main reasons that Stalin stayed in power was by implementing modernity into a society that had previously been stuck in a traditionalized environment. Fitzpatrick describes how Stalin changed peoples lives in the Soviet Union by advancing there means of production to bring them up to speed with the rest of the western world. Stalin's production of more factories led to the increase in the work force. Along with the increase in size, the work force became more diversified with the addition of women. These improvements however had some setbacks. One being problems in family life, this can be accredited to the implementation of women in the work force. Modernization made Russian women no longer subordinate to men. They were now able to obtain jobs, which made them absent from the household. This surge in the number of factories and jobs offered led to "ten million women entering the labor market."(Fitzpatrick 139) The bond between child and mother was broken as women were not raising their children and began seeing "the upbringing of children as a community rather then family responsibility." (Fitzpatrick 156) This new mentality would never have come about if women were not placed in the work force. Women went from traditionalized lifestyles to believing that "they should have careers" because raising a family was only for the "bourgeois." (Fitzpatrick 156-160) Conflicts with men arose quite rapidly as women were now not only in the work force, but being promoted as well. (Fitzpatrick 161) These conflicts could have been the cause for the divorce rate to increase during this time. The families that were in tact were forced to live in cramped quarters. Thanks to modernization these single room apartments had bathrooms and kitchens, which Stalin would argue, made "life more cheerful.

Mental health programs Essay

Community health programs based in churches have been highly successful, although occasionally confusing and stressful for pastors to administer. However, it is not only physical health programs which have thrived; mental health and chemical dependency programs are an important supplement to church ministry and community service. Thompson and McRae argue that the Black church itself offers a positive therapeutic effect to its congregation, even without a formal mental health ministry in place. They discuss the historical basis for the Black church’s creation of community; the creation of the â€Å"we† group rather than the individual â€Å"I† and the need for belonging with a group, rather than to a group (41). They state â€Å"Embedded within the individual were past experiences, traditions, values, and norms for emotions, cognitions, and behaviors conducive to relatedness and â€Å"interpersonalness† that reflected a collective sense of belonging with rather than to, caring, similar others (Thompson & McRae, 41). † The Black church, in Thompson and McRae’s view, has created a bridge for the gap between the historic slave experience and the modern Black experience which helps ease the mental transition between worlds, and created a framework for dealing with hostility. They state â€Å"The Black church nurtures the survival of its members through providing a supportive, caring environment to facilitate an ever-widening upward spiral of positive cognitive, affective and behavioral outcomes for growth and change (Thompson & McRae, 46). † While the mere fact of church fellowship has a positive effect on its members, Black church involvement in formal mental health ministry programs has a significant impact on its members as well. Blank discussed the importance of mental health care within the church setting. They state that there are four areas of community care considered most effective in the church setting. These are primary care delivery, mental health, health promotion and disease promotion and health policy. Their review of studies underscored the importance of natural helpers (friends and extended family), lay helpers and most especially church leaders in the delivery of mental health care through an informal care system. Blank discussed the state of mental health care in the rural South in the 1970s; the population was discovered by researchers studying psychiatric utilization and morbidity in the area to be underserved, despite the general view that rural life was superior to urban. The problems contributing to low psychiatric utilization are complex; problems with service delivery, low quality of care (especially among minority patients) and lack of providers are entangled with social stigma surrounding psychiatric care, economic and social factors, geographic distance from providers, poverty, race and class issues to create a morass of issues a patient must slog through to acquire psychiatric care. Blank notes that at the time of the study, most counties lacked a single doctoral-level mental health professional; only 3% of licensed psychiatrists practice in the rural South, a number which has not changed significantly since the 1970s. In addition to the socioeconomic issues with receiving psychiatric care in the rural South, there are further problems relating to doctor-patient relations. Some theorists state that white mental health care providers cannot provide optimal care to Black patients because of their lack of knowledge and understanding of Black history and culture, as well as a lack of understanding of the difficulty of being Black in a white world; furthermore Black patients are less likely to trust white care providers due to racial tensions and differences in worldview (Blank , 1668). Instead, Black patients are considered to have a preference for Black care providers. While some studies have shown that Black patients do prefer Black care providers, stated reasons for this preference are a perception of greater professional competence and attitude, as well as racial and cultural compatibility (Blank , 1668). Blank emphasize the importance of sensitivity and cultural competence; it can lead to a greater understanding of non-normative minority behavior as well as an increase in trust levels between provider and patient which increase the possibility of a successful outcome. Blank discusses the cultural responsiveness hypothesis, which states that the effectiveness of psychotherapy is directly related to the therapist’s ability to communicate an understanding of the patient’s cultural background. Lack of this cultural responsiveness might account for some of the racial divide in diagnosis, treatment and premature termination of treatment observed between Black and white psychiatric patients (Blank, 1669). Blank hypothesized that rural churches provide fewer social and mental health services than urban churches, and that they have fewer links with the formal care system; furthermore, because of the importance of the church in the Black community and the historic exclusion of Black from formal care systems (schools, mental health services, etc), Black churches would provide more social and mental health services than white churches, but with fewer links to the formal care system (1669). Blank tested their theory using a phone survey of Black and white church leaders in both rural and urban areas in the South (defined in their study as Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missisippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and Virginia (Blank, 1670)). A total of 2,867 churches were targeted, with a total of 269 completed interviews, or an overall participation rate of just under 10% (Blank, 1670). Rural Black churches, the targeted demographic, were actually least likely to participate in the study, with only a one in fourteen survey completion rate; the researchers cited lack of full-time staff creating difficulties reaching church leaders and a high rate of church leader refusal as factors in this low completion rate (Blank, 1670). The researchers discussed topics such as church demographics, including size and racial composition of the congregation, number of services held and attendance at the services, the church budget and founding date; problems the church’s congregants faced that the church leader considered to be most important; specific questions about mental health services provided by the church or church leader, including such issues as depression, paranoia, nervous breakdown, dementia and Alzheimer’s disease and attempted suicide; What type of support services were offered formally by the church to deal with these types of issues; and what links to the formal care system, including hospitals, care providers and support services like Alcoholics Anonymous existed, and if links existed to what level church leaders provided referrals to the formal care system (Blank, 1669). The researchers then constructed four different scales on which to rank the churches: Problems, which quantified the degree to which responding churches dealt with mental health problems over the previous two years; Programs for Adults, which quantified the number of mental health programs offered by the church, including those dealing with alcohol and substance abuse, marital counseling, sex education and counseling, domestic violence and sexual assault; Programs for Children, which quantified programs specifically aimed at support for children, including individual and family support services; and finally Programs for Teenagers, which quantified programs specifically aimed at support for teens. Referrals, both in and out, were also quantified (Blank, 1670). Statistical analysis using factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine the correlation between the varying factors. The researchers found some surprising differences in funding – when adjusted for congregation size, rural white churches had substantially larger budgets than rural Black churches, and urban Black churches also had significantly larger budgets than the rural Black churches (Blank, 1670). However, both urban and rural Black churches were shown to offer significantly higher numbers of mental health programs overall than their white counterparts. There were no statistically significant variables in the study of links between referrals, but the modal response among churches overall was 0, indicating that all churches tend to lack links with the formal care system (Blank, 1671). Blank extrapolate concerning the possible reasons for lack of links between the formal care system and the informal care system provided by churches. They note that one of the difficulties may be historical in nature; because churches are often divided among racial and ethnic lines, there may be barriers to connection between the formal care system and churches precipitated by racial and ethnic tensions. Additionally, because churches have played a role as a political entity in the past, there may be lingering social tensions between churches and formal care systems which prevent these roles. (Blank, 1671). Another barrier may be the different paradigms of the formal care system and the church regarding the nature, causes and treatment of mental health problems.

Macbeth and Animal Farm Analysis Essay

Explore the ways ambition is presented and developed in the texts Macbeth and Animal Farm. Macbeth and Animal farm have many common elements that can be paralleled between the two texts. One of the main ideas is the way the two main characters, Macbeth and Napoleon have an intense ambition and languish to have control over others which they take by force and their desperate attempts to contain it. William Shakespeare portrays Macbeth as a cold-blooded, power-hungry and ambitious tyrant, blinded by his burning desire to be authoritative, who will go to extreme measures to achieve his goals. On the contrary, George Orwell shows Napoleon as a manipulative character who hides his true intentions (much like Macbeth) from all those around him, even those who are his supposed allies. Both texts have historical backgrounds. Orwell writes about the Russian Revolution, in form of an allegory, (which has led to the fable being described as political literature with universal resonance), however Macbeth was a play of extreme violence written in the Elizabethan period for the reigning monarchs (King James I) in 1606. Shakespeare shows the darker side of humanity through Macbeths desire to be the best and how he becomes ruthless and emotionless from securing it. Macbeths ambition first comes to light to the reader when Banquo describes Macbeth as â€Å"rapt withal† after hearing the witches prophecies which strongly indicated that he would become King. The word â€Å"rapt† can be interpreted to be a double entendre suggesting that Macbeth is both wrapped up in his thoughts and is unable to find a way out as well as being literally entranced and â€Å"rapt† by the news the witches have told him. Although Banquo strongly dismisses the idea that the prophecies could even contain the faintest bit of truth however Macbeth quickly becomes intrigued by what the witches have to offer him pleading â€Å"Stay you imperfect speakers. / Tell me more.† It is at this point that the reader realises that Macbeth’s desires are not â€Å"honest trifles† like those of his co mpanions and later on in the scene this idea is reinforced by Shakespeare’s deliberate use of an â€Å"[Aside]† showing that Macbeth is aware his thoughts are wrong. Audiences watching they play at the time would have believed that Macbeth was acting under the influence of the witches enchantments when deciding to keep his desires to himself. This links to the idea of Macbeth’s ambition taking priority over loyalty towards the king and his companions, knowing that if they could hear his thoughts they would horrified. Shakespeare represents  Macbeth’s desire in a direct and harsh way in comparison to Orwell who tries to subtly introduce Napoleon and keep his thoughts private from the reader. When both characters are first introduced their description give the reader an insight as to what their personalities are like and in Napoleons case could foreshadow later events. In the opening of the second chapter Orwell introduced Napoleon as â€Å"a large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm† as well as stating that he was â€Å"not much of a talker but with a reputation for getting his own way.â₠¬  This immediately sets him apart from the rest of the pigs and the word â€Å"only† also shows he has a different mind-set from those around him and is a unique and individual character. The deliberate use of the word â€Å"large† is effective as it foreshadows the magnitude of Napoleon’s ambition to gain power and control of Animal Farm. The description of Napoleon as â€Å"fierce-looking† also could suggest that he will terrorise the animals later on in the book and he will rely on fear in order to fulfil his ambition. On the other hand the description of Macbeth as â€Å"noble† and â€Å"valiant† leaves the reader with a false first impression of Macbeth’s personality. In Act 1 Scene 7 Shakespeare expresses Macbeth’s feelings and emotions through the use of a soliloquy. This is a technique he uses to show the confusion that Macbeth is facing due to his ambition to rule Scotland. In the beginning of the soliloquy Macbeth is questioning whether sacrilege is the answer to his problems and his state of mind is unstable suggesting he does not want to commit a crime. Near the end of the soliloquy he uses nature imagery to show what he is doing is unnatural and going against the ‘Divine Right of King’ by personifying nature through stating that â€Å"The tears shall drown t he wind.† This could be a reference to the tears that will be shed by those in the castle upon hearing of King Duncan’s death. The last lines of the soliloquy are important as Macbeth states: â€Å"I have no spur / To prick the sides of my intent, but only / Vaulting ambition which o’erleaps itself / And falls on th’other–† suggesting that he aware that the consequences of allowing his ambition to control his actions could backfire. This implies that Macbeth’s excessive ambition is like a horse that attempts to cross a hurdle that is too high and falls.† It is extremely convenient that Lady Macbeth enters at this time as this suggests that she is the spur that will drive him on to achieve the power and status that he believes he rightly  deserves.